Maximilan and Vladislaus decided in the congress: their mutual succession treaty was further confirmed by a double wedding. Despite the widespread opinion that Ferdinand was a "ghost of a monarch", Metternich valued legitimacy highly and worked to keep the government running. Despite Napoleons appeal to history, he was exiled to the remote south Atlantic island of Saint Helena, arriving with a handful of loyal followers on October 15, 1815. The Congress of Vienna dissolved the Napoleonic world and attempted to restore the monarchies Napoleon had overthrown, ushering in an era of reaction. The charter of June 4, 1814, known as la Charte octroye (the charter granted, as having been granted by the king to his subjects and not accepted from them), established a bicameral parliamentary system after the English model. [73], In February 1831 rebels took the cities of Parma, Modena and Bologna and appealed to France for help. In January 1803 Metternich and his wife had a child whom they named Viktor. Although it has been argued that the superior numbers opposing Napoleon in Belgium virtually condemned him to failure, his strategy and his initial success made it possible to gain a victory. Metternich also worried that if future congresses were held in Britain, as Palmerston wanted, his own influence would be significantly reduced. The Congress of Vienna discussed ending the European slave trade, protecting the rights of German Jews, and free European river navigation. A revolutionary aspect of the Congress was the attendance of rulers representing minor European states. He made his way with difficulty into exile in England but returned to Vienna in 1851, where he died eight years later. With Countess Maria Eleonore von Kaunitz-Rietberg[nb 11] (10 October 1775 19 March 1825), grand-daughter of Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg: With Baroness Maria Antoinette von Leykam, Countess von Beylstein (15 August 1806 17 January 1829), daughter of Christoph Ambros Freiherr von Leykam (1781-1830) and his wife, Lucia Antonia Caputo dei Marchesi della Petrella (b. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of French protectorates and annexations into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium, and the continuation of British subsidies to its allies. This contradicts, however, the established date of Wilhemine's death1839 (, When Buol signed an alliance with the Western powers in December 1855albeit one that did not commit troopsMetternich would have noted with regret how Buol had broken the bonds with Russia he had cultivated for so long(, Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Wrttemberg, Catholic Bench of the College of the Counts of Westphalia, Count Johann Philipp von Stadion-Warthausen, Grand-Chancellor of the Order of Maria Theresa, Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich, Pauline Klementine Marie Walburga Sndor de Szlavnicza, Oettingen-Oettingen und Oettingen-Spielberg, Hohenlohe-Schillingsfrst-Breunner-Enkevoirth, Klementine Marie Melanie Sofie Leontine Crescentia, Senator Grand Cross of the Constantinian Order of St. George, Grand Cross of the Military Order of Christ, "Liste chronologique des chevaliers de l'ordre du Saint-Esprit depuis son origine jusqu' son extinction (15781830)", "Caballeros Grandes-Cruces existentes en la Real y Distinguida Orden Espaola de Carlos Terceros", "Creating a Statesman: The Early Life of Prince Clemens von Metternich and its Effect on his Political Philosophy", "Metternich-Winneburg, Clemens Wenzel Lothar", Metternich's Political Profession of Faith, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Klemens_von_Metternich&oldid=1165467303, Franz Georg Karl, Count of Metternich-Winneburg, Maria Leopoldina (17 January 1797 24 July 1820), married on 15 September 1817 to Count Jozsef. He was at her bedside in Baden bei Wien when she died on 20 July. Napoleon, however, was defeated decisively at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June. With Russia Metternich was more confident of exerting influence. On arrival, he found an exiled and powerless government in a headlong retreat from the latest French advance. Meanwhile, his detractors argued that he could have done much to secure Austria's future, and he was deemed a stumbling block to reforms in Austria. [22] Soon after, Napoleon refused Metternich's attendance at the Congress of Erfurt; Metternich was later glad to hear from Talleyrand that Napoleon's attempts at the Congress to get Russia to invade Austria had proved unsuccessful. After months of negotiations with Prussia and Russia, Austria annexed the city in November 1846. He need not have worried: the Tsar gave way and accepted a compromise proposal of moderate interventionism laid down in the Troppau Protocol. The first goal was to establish a new balance of power in Europe which would prevent imperialism within Europe, such as the Napoleonic empire, and maintain the peace between the great powers. Their former rulers appealed for help from Austria, but Metternich was anxious not to march Austrian troops into the Papal States without authorisation from the new Pope Gregory XVI. The peninsula was under French control for almost two decades. He had originally intended to use this assembly to oppose revolutionary thought all over Germany. [9], In England, he met King George III on several occasions and dined with a number of influential British politicians, including William Pitt, Charles James Fox and Edmund Burke. Worse came in late September: while accompanying the Emperor to a meeting with Alexander at Czernowitz, Metternich fell ill with a fever. Austria, Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden were the primary signatories. Every part of the European continent was represented at the conference. [70] On 29 March 1827 Metternich spoke and attended the funeral of Beethoven whom he may have met during the Congress of Vienna. The pursuit of the French was taken up by the Prussians. Metternich himself had left on 13 June for the front line, prepared for a lengthy war against Napoleon. [83] It was not until 10 March that Metternich appeared concerned about events in Vienna, where there were now threats and counter-threats flying. He thus became a hated symbol of repression and reaction and, eventually, on March 13, 1848, had to resign, as the first victim of the revolution. The congress became a splendid social event. Abandoning his broken army, Napoleon arrived in Paris on the morning of the 21st and abdicated on the following day. Finally, on 13 March the Big Five declared Napoleon an outlaw and the Allies began preparations for renewed fighting. The House of Savoy that ruled Piedmont-Sardinia had been in exile since 1802. The Congress united the kingdom of Savoy and Piedmont with republics of Genoa and Nice. [68] Metternich opposed electoral reform, criticising Britain's 1832 Reform Bill. Napoleon was shipped to St Helena, a forlorn British possession in the South Atlantic, where he stayed out of mischief until his death. Countess Marie-Clementine Blome (23 June 1860 died young). Metternich did not attend talks with the French at Chtillon, as he wanted to stay with Alexander. He could also now visit Koblenz for the first time in 25 years and his new estate at Johannisberg. The generous Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 May. In spite of this, the union of these small Italian States led indirectly to the . The Tsar remained unaccommodating however, demanding a push into the centre of France; but he was too preoccupied to object to Metternich's other ideas, like a final peace conference in Vienna. [30] Napoleon was intransigent, however, and the fighting (now officially the War of the Sixth Coalition) continued. [37] Metternich and Castlereagh formed a good working relationship and then met with Alexander at Langres. This proved ill advised, since the latter started voicing critical opinions in the press and parliaments. He disliked liberalism and strove to prevent the breakup of the Austrian Empire, for example, by crushing nationalist revolts in Austrian northern Italy. "Congress of Vienna The beginning of Lent on 8 February brought him more time to devote to these congressional issues as well as private discussions about southern Italy, where Joachim Murat was said to be raising a Neapolitan army. [58] Metternich reluctantly agreed to attend the Russian-initiated Congress of Troppau in October to discuss these events. Over the next three months, he would slowly distance Austria from the French cause, while avoiding alliance with either Prussia or Russia,[29] and remaining open to any proposal that would secure a place for the combined Bonaparte-Habsburg dynasty. [59] Metternich found himself able to dominate Laibach more than any other congress, overseeing Ferdinand's rejection of the liberal constitution he had agreed to only months before. That system may be roughly designated as the system of the Great Powers. [37][38] Francis rejected a final plea from Napoleon that he would abdicate in favour of his son with Marie Louise as regent, and Paris fell on 30 March. In March the French crossed the Pyrenees unilaterally, undoing the "moral solidarity" established at Verona. [54] He visited the family estate at Knigswart and then Frankfurt in late August to encourage the member states of the German Confederation to agree on procedural issues. In the meantime France had declared war on Austria, beginning the War of the First Coalition (17927) and making Metternich's further study in Mainz impossible. . His return to Vienna was celebrated by an occasional cantata that included the line "History holds thee up to posterity as a model among great men". [48] The arrangement was similarly popular with most German representatives. They admire the tact and circumspection with which he has handled the German committee. Metternich rose through key diplomatic posts, including ambassadorial roles in the Kingdom of Saxony, the Kingdom of Prussia, and especially Napoleonic France. [62] He played for time, convincing his ally Castlereagh to come to Vienna for talks before a scheduled congress in Verona, although Castlereagh died by suicide on 12 August. To bring about a balance of power in Europe and prevent further conflict, they developed what became known as the Concert of Europe, beginning with the Congress of Vienna. That, however, must be ascribed to his diplomatic capability rather than to his political foresight. Before ministers from the "Big Four" (the Coalition allies of Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia) arrived, Metternich stayed quietly in Baden bei Wien, two hours to the south. By an unbroken chain of festivities, Metternich kept the visiting monarchs in a mood that made them disinclined to interfere very persistently in the real work of the statesmen. 5.7 The Congress of Vienna. (July 25, 2023). The succession of omissions and mistakes which followedsome his own and some his lieutenantscombined with unusually poor staff work, and, on the 18th, the failure to coordinate all three arms, may be adduced as the most immediate reasons for the loss of the Waterloo Campaign. His army, by far the most powerful in Europe, had marched into the heart of Europe to liberate both Prussia and Austria. Representatives of the four major allies began to arrive in Vienna in September 1814, but two months after the sessions began, the reconstituted monarchy of Bourbon France was admitted, and it was this committee of five that was the real Congress of Vienna. [22] Back in Paris, Metternich was overtly apprehensive about his own safety. Metternich's private life was filled with grief. He quickly gathered representatives in Vienna, whence on 27 July they issued a communiqu to Istanbul pledging support. The Current Ambiguity of Space Law, Geopolitics of the Arctic: While Caps Melt, Disputes Heighten, Apartheid: Racial Segregation in South Africa, The 5 Most Important Treaties in World History, A Deadly Dose of Reality on North Sentinel Island, Territorial Dispute of the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea, Negotiations with the Taliban Collapse as Trump Cancels Secret Meeting at Camp David. [34], Austria's allies saw the declaration as an admission that Austria's diplomatic ambitions had failed, but Metternich viewed it as one move in a much longer campaign. [59] The rest of 1820 was filled with liberal revolts to which Metternich was expected to respond. The entente between the great powers finally broke down only five years later. The trip was cut short by the assassination of the conservative German dramatist August von Kotzebue. These were Europes most important statesmen including Prime Ministers, representatives to emperors, dukes, principal ministers and other ranking statesmen. The trip was designed, Metternich explained, to transport his family (stranded in France by the outbreak of war) home and to report to the Austrian Emperor about Marie Louise's activities. In that case, however, pacifism was not meekness. Metternich wanted Austria to be compensated for its wartime efforts by the annexation of Lombardy and Venetia to the empire. [82] The pair proposed a conference, but the government crushed the revolt. The Napoleon who returned from Elba in March 1815 had lost the magic of victory. It is said that this social side of the Congress was the reason why the Congress of Vienna took such a long time before it produced tangible results. Napoleon lost 25,000 men killed and wounded and 9,000 captured. London: I.B. How effective was this system of peace? The Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815 by the four European powers which had defeated Napoleon. Frederick William III, king of Prussia (r. 17971840), however, was unwilling to support the absorption of former Prussian territory without fair compensation. The Information Architects maintain a master list of the topics included in the corpus of The First Congress of Vienna was held in 1515, attended by the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I, and the Jagiellonian brothers, Vladislaus II, King of Hungary and King of Bohemia, and Sigismund I, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. Delegates met in a federal assembly dominated by Austria. The Coalition rejected this utterly, and the agreement seemed further off than ever. [87] Metternich was reinvigorated, dropped his nostalgia, and lived in the present for the first time in a decade. In 1836 it seemed as if he would at last be able to carry out his idea of well-ordered government, but at the decisive moment Kolowrat managed to convert the archdukes John and Louis to his own theories. The three signatory monarchs (the tsar of Russia, the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia) were putting their respective Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant faiths on an equal footing. It is this mistake that perhaps has led to a lot of condemnation of the Vienna congressmen. Stella Ghervas examines the Great Powers' attempt to create a new European order following the defeat of Napoleon. A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh, and the Problems of Peace, 18121822. He condemned, however, the repressive measures by which the police minister tried to achieve these aims. [82] He was described by a Saxon diplomat as, in the words of biographer Musulin, "having shrunk to a shadow of his former self".[83]. Franz Karl Viktor Ernst Lothar Clemens Joseph Anton Adam (12 January 1803 30 November 1829); he had one illegitimate son with Claire Clemence Henriette Claudine. Therefore, its best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publications requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html. French borders as of 1792, including Nice and Savoy and territory taken from the west bank of the Rhine. Three major European congresses took place. Castlereagh therefore desired the establishment of a strong state in the Low Countries that would prohibit French expansion. Hermine Gabriele (Henrietta) Marie Eleonore Leopoldine (1 September 1815 December 1890), unmarried. It is thus ironic that the religious treaty of the Holy Alliance liberated European politics from ecclesiastical influence, making it a founding act of the secular era of international relations. Baron Karl August von Hardenberg represented Prussia, and Tsar Alexander I, Russia. Born into the House of Metternich in 1773 as the son of a diplomat, Metternich received a good education at the universities of Strasbourg and Mainz. Metternich's now almost impossible task was to convince Prussia to join the coalition against Bonaparte. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. The Congress of Vienna (September 1814-June 1815) was the climax of Metternich's work of reconstruction. A summation treaty was signed on 19 June (the Russians signed a week later),[46] bringing the Vienna Congress officially to an end. Here, those that represented more underpopulated countries not only attended the Congress, but additionally and brought along ladies and secretaries to enjoy the social life of the Austrian court. [46] In the meantime a separate treaty, proposed by Alexander and redrafted by Metternich, had been signed on 26 September. They did not intend to cede to his demands, so the meetings were postponed many times. 200th Anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo. At Vienna, just as at Utrecht a century before, Britain considered it essential to contain France against a possible military resurgence. Great Britain's interests were not limited to central and eastern Europe. Historians agree on Metternich's skill as a diplomat and his dedication to conservatism. Metternich and Talleyrand were unwilling to accede to Alexander's and Frederick William's desires, as that would enlarge Russian and Prussian borders to the detriment of Austria, and run counter to French sympathies for the Poles. [25], Instead, Metternich stayed six months, entrusting his office in Vienna to his father. This arrangement worked to balance a potentially pro-British Naples, as well as an independently minded Piedmont-Sardinia, which had traditionally been a thorn in Austria's side. A separate attempt to strengthen the influence of ambassadors stationed in Vienna was also rejected. Alexander had been a man of fairly liberal disposition,as far as Russia was concerned. There they were joined by Bourbon France as a major participant and by Sweden and . With revolution subsiding, Metternich was hopeful they would return to Vienna. The event led to the complete reorganization of Europe after the Napoleonic wars. [33], In June Metternich left Vienna to personally handle negotiations at Gitschin in Bohemia. As a result, the Big Six became the Preliminary Committee of the Eight, whose first decision was that the congress itself be postponed to 1 November. A woodcut by Albrecht Drer commemorates the double wedding on 22 July 1515. One of his first assignments as Foreign Minister was to engineer a dtente with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian archduchess Marie Louise. Victor Hugo Which novel written by Leo Tolstoy portrays the Napoleonic Wars from the Russian perspective? [4][5], In the summer of 1788, Metternich began studying law at the University of Strasbourg, matriculating on 12 November. In March 1792 Francis succeeded as Holy Roman Emperor and was crowned in July, affording Metternich a reprise of his earlier role of Ceremonial Marshal. France too began to drift away from Metternich's non-interventionist position. Metternich, as his influence dwindled, yielded to an increasingly irritating vanity and to a passion for theorizing that caused his utterances to become increasingly prolix and, at times, to verge on the ridiculous. Metternich observed the siege and fall of Valenciennes, later looking back on these as substantial lessons about warfare. In the summers he worked with his father, who had been appointed plenipotentiary and effective ruler of the Austrian Netherlands. Hence, he proposed a German Confederation with Austria acting as the presiding power. In January 1848 Metternich predicted trouble in Italy during the year ahead. The four principal nations were allowed to keep managing the significant problems by themselves. [52] Importantly, the divisions would be regional, not national. France lost all of its territorial conquests from the Napoleonic Wars. Two petitions were organised, calling for greater freedom, transparency, and representation. Here he led the interrogation of the French Minister of War the Marquis de Beurnonville and several accompanying National Convention commissioners. They had three children: Klemens II Wenzel Lothar Michal Felix (Richard), 4th Prince Metternich (9 February 1869 13 May 1930), married on 4 October 1905 to, Paul II Alphonse Klemens Lothar Filip Neri Felix Nikomedes, 5th Prince Metternich (26 May 1917 21 September 1992), married on 6 September 1941 to Princess Tatiana Hilarionovna. ." [66] Prussia committed men,[66] and the Tsar pledged 150,000. The Conservative Order is a term applied to European political history after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Palmerston did indeed leave office in November, but only temporarily and not by any of Metternich's attempts. Nonetheless, he was heartened by the fact that the July Revolution had made a Franco-Russian alliance impossible and that the Netherlands had called an old-style congress of the sort he enjoyed so much. Already in a bad mood, he was an awkward guest, though in between criticisms of Austria he reassured Metternich that Russia was not about to invade the Ottoman Empire again. Metternich complained that it "interfered with [his] time, [his] customs and [his] daily life", as he was forced to travel to Bratislava to perform ceremonial duties and to observe. Previously, Vladislaus and Maximilian had agreed on a Habsburg-Jagiellon mutual-succession treaty in 1506. The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity, 18121822. [17], In the ensuing reshuffle in Vienna Count Johann Philipp von Stadion-Warthausen became the Foreign Minister of Austrian Empire, freeing Metternich to assume the post of Ambassador to the Russian Empire. [82] The students offered to form a pro-government Academic Legion if their demands were met. He responded that Naples and Piedmont would pay for stability; nonetheless, he, too, was clearly worried for the future of Italy. Although the doctrine of revolutionary suppression did not last beyond midcentury, the concept of diplomatic negotiation and territorial compensation to limit state expansion was quite successful in restraining European conflicts and mitigating their consequences. In late February Austrian field marshal Joseph Radetsky placed Austrian Italy (Lombardy-Venetia) under martial law as disturbances spread. The 1830 convocation of the Hungarian Diet was also more successful than past ones, crowning Archduke Ferdinand as King of Hungary with little dissent. In September Metternich returned to Vienna, entertained along the way by various German princes keen to entertain the focus of Prussian intrigue. Under the Concert of Europe, the major European powersBritain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and (after 1818) Francepledged to meet regularly to resolve differences. The Congress System formally ended in 1823, when the Great Powers stopped meeting regularly. Full text of "The Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815" See other formats . At home, Metternich held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848 under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I. International relations of the Great Powers (18141919)., https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations_of_the_Great_Powers_(1814-1919), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Order, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert_of_Europe, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_balance_of_power, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BalanceOfPower.jpg, https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/. Golden Civil Cross "For Merit" (1813/1814), This page was last edited on 15 July 2023, at 10:26. In the September of 1814, delegates started arriving in Vienna. Eventually, most of them, with the exception of Britain and the Holy See, signed the Holy Alliance. Over the next decade, his wife prepared quietly for his retirement or death in office. He also softened in regard to the Germanic Kingdom of Saxony, and for the first time allowed Talleyrand to participate in all Big Four (now Big Five) discussions. [71] After another round of his proposals for congresses was rejected, Metternich stood back from the Eastern Question, watching as the Treaty of Adrianople was signed in September 1829. Countess Maria Karola von Blome (16 January 1877 19 July 1951), a nun. Though the allies came close to blows over the partition of Poland, by February 1815 they had averted a new war thanks to a series of adroit compromises. [78], Metternich had long predicted a new crisis in the East, and when the Egyptian-Ottoman War broke out in 1839 he was anxious to re-establish Austria's diplomatic credentials. Italy provided a particular dilemma for Metternich and the other statesmen. In 1853 Russia decided to go for the jugular of the Ottoman Empire and threatened Constantinople. A French abbot, Saint-Pierre, had published a book in 1713 (the same year as the Peace of Utrecht), where he criticised the balance of power as being merely an armed truce. [nb 10] In the meantime Metternich's health was slowly failing, and he was a more peripheral figure after the death of his wife Melanie in January 1854. To make things worse, the monarchs soon started borrowing each others armies to put down rebellions. [81], At the Conference of State Metternich lost his principal ally Count Karl von Clam-Martinic in 1840, which furthered the growing paralysis at the heart of Austrian government. It grew out of Congress of Vienna. [81] Italy was quiet, and neither Metternich's attempt to lecture the new Prussian king Frederick William IV nor the boredom of the new British Queen Victoria at their first meeting posed immediate problems. So many representatives showed up along with their entourages that Viennas population increased by more than a third. Britain and France countered by sending an expeditionary force, starting the Crimean War. ISBN: 9781784530563 (paperback, $27.00). This marked the high point of Austria's diplomatic importance and thereafter Metternich slowly slipped into the periphery of international diplomacy. Klemens von Metternich, in full Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar, Frst von Metternich-Winneburg-Beilstein, (born May 15, 1773, Coblenz, Archbishopric of Trier [Germany]died June 11, 1859, Vienna, Austria), Austrian statesman, minister of foreign affairs (1809-48), and a champion of conservatism, who helped form the victorious alliance against Nap. When he heard they had reached Vienna he journeyed to meet them and encouraged them to go with him back to Baden. Metternich, wary of letting the Russians dominate affairs, could only play for time. Congress of Vienna. [8] Now in the employment of his father,[7] he was sent on a special mission to the front. The goal of the conservatives at the Congress, led by Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria, was to reestablish peace and stability in Europe. Further Explanation: Congress of Vienna was held in series to rebuild the peace. In the ensuing diplomatic reshuffle Metternich was appointed ambassador to the Kingdom of Prussia, being notified of this in February 1803 and taking his position in November of that year. In March 1815, in the midst of all these feverish negotiations, the unthinkable happened: Napoleon escaped from his place of exile on Elba and re-occupied the throne of France, starting the adventure known as the Hundred Days. Diplomatically, with the war drawing to a close, he remained determined to prevent the creation of a strong, unified German state, even offering Napoleon generous terms in order to retain him as a counterweight. Napoleon said he wanted "a Kaunitz", and whether he literally meant someone from the, At this time, the Russians favoured a new monarchy under, Specifically, four chancellorships became three, one of which was never filled, and Italy did get a chancellery and permission to run its administration, education, and law in Italian; there was to be no new Ministry of Justice, though the Count of Wallis was made head of one new department responsible for legal reform and a new viceroy to Lombardy-Venetia was appointed (one of Francis' earlier concessions) (, Metternich succeeded in preventing proposals for a French-led invasion only by rendering Tsar Alexander fearful of a French conspiracy (, Britain and Austria both wished to avoid war, but the British Foreign Secretary Canning wanted an autonomous Greek state. He arrived in Vienna on 11 December 1818 and was finally able to spend considerable time with his children. [7] Metternich was delighted when Frankfurt was retaken in early November and, in particular, by the deference the Tsar showed Francis at a ceremony organised there by Metternich. This would be the topic of mediation with the Ottomans. The basic tenet of the European balance of power is that no single European power should be allowed to achieve hegemony over a substantial part of the continent and that this is best curtailed by having a small number of ever-changing alliances contend for power. Not even within the Austrian Empire was Metternich able to prevail with the idea (already at the root of his plans of 1811) of overcoming the spirit of national revolution by revitalizing the old historical regions and the privileges they enjoyed in pre-absolutist times.
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